The Other Sigel

During the mid-nineteenth century the world was in an uproar. Many countries in Europe were struggling with revolutions. In Prussia, the idea of combining the German states into a unified, single Germany, was part of the revolutionist’s plans. But because of the failed reforms, many of these revolutionaries - most of who were highly educated, politically astute and militarily trained – fled to the United States in a search for a new life. Called “Fourty-Eighters” because of their involvements in the revolutions of 1848, many of these Europeans arrived in America and became not only prominent citizens, but also contributed to and invested in their new homeland.

German immigrants also enlisted, some voluntarily and other not so voluntarily, in the United States Army. With the threat of secession of the southern states and what looked like a civil war brewing, many of these Germans sided with their new found country in the effort to maintain the Union, and some, to fight against the southern support of slavery. With a rise in German immigrants, there were German officers appointed to spur these immigrants towards enlistment. This is a brief look at one such German that, by circumstances or fate, fell into obscurity behind his famous General brother and has been lost to the passage of time.

Colonel Albert Sigel was born in Sinsheim, Rhein-Neckar-Kreis, Baden-Württemberg, Germany on November 13, 1827. He was the third child Franz Moritz Sigel (1788 – 1864) and Anna Marie Pauline Lichtenauer, both of Germany, along with his brother, the famed Civil War General Franz Peter Sigel (1824 – 1902), and his other siblings Laura, Theresa, Emil and Karl Sigel. Colonel Sigel immigrated to the United States in 1851 along with many other Europeans, including his brother Franz, who were called “Forty-Eighters” in reference to their participations in the failed European revolutions of 1848. He was naturalized in New York, NY on October 24, 1860.

Colonel Sigel married Rosa Fischer (1844 – 1939) of St Louis, Missouri on March 26, 1863 in St. Louis, Missouri. The Sigel’s had six children, Amalia (1864 – 1953), Moritz (1866 – 1933), Anna (1867 – 1951), Lena (1870 - 1967), Emma (1872 - 1966), and Albert (1878 – 1880).[1] Of the six Sigel children, only Amalia ever married (to Robert G. Bremerman) and they had no sons. The other Sigel children had no children of their own and lived with their mother until her death. Earel Albert Sigel died of meningitis at the age of 1 year, 10months and 6 days, thus ending any direct male lineage from Albert Sigel. Col. Sigel's wife Rosa, along with Amailia, Moritz, Anna, and Lena were all cremated at the Missouri Crematorium in St. Louis.[2]

Sigel enlisted in the U.S. Army on May 28, 1861 in New Jersey and commissioned a captain of Company D, New Jersey 2^nd Infantry Regiment. He mustered out of this regiment on December 14, 1861. Sigel was given the rank of Colonel on May 19, 1862 and commanded the Booneville State Militia Cavalry Battalion (“Epsteins”) which was organized at Booneville, MO. March 24, 1862. This militia unit saw a few skirmishes in central Missouri until it was re-organized as the 13^th Regiment Missouri State Militia Cavalry.

On October 18, 1861, while commanding the 13^th MSM Cavalry, Col. Sigel was involved in an investigation of the killing of rebel prisoners in Waynesville.

The 13^th MSM Cavalry was involved in an engagement in California House, MO (now just California, MO) in which Col. Sigel gave the following report;

OCTOBER 18, 1862. - Skirmish at California House, Mo.
Report of Colonel Albert Sigel, Thirteenth Missouri Cavalry (Militia).
HDQRS. 13TH Regiment CAV., MO. S. M.,
Waynesville, Mo., Oct. 18, 1862.

COLONEL: In compliance with your dispatch, received last evening that 200 rebels had crossed the Missouri at Portland the night before and tried to make their way south, I thought it best to let them come near our post, so as to be able to intercept them whenever they tried to cross our line. I therefore ordered Captain Murphy, after midnight, with portions of four companies, numbering 75 men, toward the Gasconade, while I had another force of about 100 men ready to throw on them whenever I could get information where they intended to cross.

At about 10 o'clock this morning I received a report that Captain Murphy had not only found their trace, but was in hot pursuit of them. It was also reported that they had turned southwest, and it was now certain to me that they would cross our line 7 miles west from here, near the California House. I immediately started there with the force already mentioned, and we were scarcely ten minutes near the California House when they drove in our advance guard, under Lieutenant Muller, of Company A, who fell back and brought them into the line of Lieutenant Brown, of Company F, whose men were dismounted. We now pitched into them from all sides, and in a few minutes they ran for their lives. Captain Murphy was also nearly up at that time, and drove a portion of them before hi, scattering them in all directions.

The estimate of the rebels killed is 20, among them Lieutenant Tipton, and as many are wounded. We captured a secesh [sic] flag, 2 roll-books, some horses, and some shot-guns and Austrian rifles; made 3 prisoners, and liberated 2 Union men, who they had prisoners. We had only 1 man slightly wounded. I ordered the secesh [sic] population of the neighborhood to bury the dead and to care for the wounded rebels.

The rebels were well armed and equipped and 250 to 300 strong. They were commanded by Captain Ely, Captain Brooks, and two captains both with the name of Creggs, and were a part of Colonel Porter's command, who did not cross the Missouri with them, but promised to follow them with a large force.

All our officers and men behaved well. Captain Smith (Company H) has not yet, at 8.30 p. m., come back from pursuit the rebels.

I remain, colonel, very respectfully, your obedient servant,

ALBERT SIGEL,
Colonel, Commanding Thirteenth Regiment Cavalry, Mo. S. M. [3]

He again assumed command as Colonel of the 5^th Regiment Missouri State Militia Cavalry when it was reorganized from the 13^th Missouri State Militia Cavalry on February 8, 1863.[4] The 5^th MSM Cavalry was attached to the District of Rolla, Department of Missouri up until June 1863 where it was then assigned to the District of the Border, Department of Missouri up until October 1863 then reassigned back to the District of Rolla until the regiment mustered out on July 8, 1865.

The 5^th MSM Cavalry saw most of its action in and around the area of Waynesville, MO. where the headquarters was located atop a bluff overlooking the town as well as the Wire Road, a main supply route from St. Louis to Springfield, MO. Most of this action involved skirmishes and scouting missions against Missouri bushwhackers who were southern sympathizing, irregular forces. 

On March 25, 1864, Brigadier General Odon Guitar, commander of the District of Rolla and Col. Sigel’s commanding officer, was relieved of command and Col. Sigel, in accordance with General Order #25, was directed to assume command of the District of Rolla, in which Col. Sigel responded that he would indeed fulfill this role. In November 1864 he continued this role as commander of the Rolla District and after the evacuation of Fort Davidson in Pilot Knob, MO, awaited the arrival of Brigadier General Thomas Ewing.[5] In a report given by Brigadier General John McNeil, Col. Sigel received praise for setting up a secure defense in anticipation for the continuing threat of Confederate General John S. Marmaduke and General J.O. Shelby General McNeil stated that, “By the 3rd of October, so assiduously and faithfully had the working parties performed the tasks allotted, for which too much praise cannot be given to Colonel Albert Sigel, Fifth Missouri State Militia Infantry, commanding the post.”[6]

After the Civil War, Col. Sigel served as Adjutant-General of Missouri and as a notary public.

Colonel Sigel died on March 16, 1884 at the age of 56. The St. Louis Republican newspaper printed the following obituary of his passing:

BURIAL OF COL. ALBERT SIGEL.
From the St. Louis Republican, March 18.

Col. Albert Sigel, Adjutant-General of Missouri under Gov. Brown, was buried yesterday. There were few persons in attendance and no services at the house or grave. Col. Sigel was the brother of Gen. Franz Sigel, and was a native of the Grand Duchy of Baden, having been born at Sinshein, Baden, Nov. 13, 1827. He had a military education and saw some service before coming to this country. Col. Sigel during the war was in command of the Fifth Regiment Cavalry, Missouri State Militia (formerly the Thirteenth.) He was appointed Colonel of the regiment May, 19, 1862, and was mustered out with the regiment at the expiration of its term, Jan. 7, 1865. The regiment aggregated 1,100 men, was well mounted, and the condition of the horses was as good as that of the horses of any mounted regiment in the Missouri Department.[7]

At the time of his death, Col. Sigel lived at 1853 or 1929 Linn Avenue in South St. Louis, which today would be located at the I-44/I-55 interchange, southeast of Lafayette Park. Many of the streets no longer exist (including this section of Linn Ave.) and quite a few others now have different names.

The St. Louis Death Registry shows that Col. Sigel is buried at “New Picker’s Cemetery” which was seized by the City of St. Louis and renamed Gatewood Gardens Cemetery. Unfortunately, the records from 1861 to 1891 are missing and all that is left is a handwritten transcription of the log, with Col. Sigel not found. So he is most likely buried in an unmarked grave at the cemetery, lost to time.

Colonel Sigel has been mostly lost to time in the shadow of his brother Franz, by children that left him no heirs, and the march of time. However, history shows him as a dedicated soldier and commander for the United States, a public servant to the state of Missouri

Works Cited

National Park Service. The Civil War Soldiers and Sailor's Database: Battle Units. n.d. http://www.nps.gov/civilwar/search-battle-units-detail.htm?battleUnitCode=UMO0005RCY2 (accessed January 6, 2015).

New York Times. "Burial of Col. Albert Sigel." New York Times Obituary, March 21, 1884.

The Union Army: A History of Military Affairs in the Loyal States 1861-65 Records of the Regiments in the Union Army-Cyclopedia of Battles-Memoirs of Commanders and Soldiers. Vols. V Cyclopedia of Battles A - Helena. Madison, WI: Federal Publishing Company, 1908.

United States War Department. The War of the Rebellion: A Compilation of the Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies. Washington D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1901.

Wood, William D. Report of the Adjutant General. St. Louis: Headquarters State of Missouri Adjutant Generals Office, 1863.

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[1] Year: 1880; Census Place: St. Louis, St. Louis (Independent City), Missouri; Roll: 721; Family History Film: 1254721; Page: 637C; Enumeration District: 100

[2] Missouri Secretary of State, “Missouri Digital Heritage” Missouri Death Certificates, 1910-1963. http://www.sos.mo.gov/records/archives/archivesdb/deathcertificates/Default.aspx

[3] United States War Department. The War of the Rebellion: A Compilation of the Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies. Washington D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1901. Serial 019, Page 0321, Chapter XXV.

[4] Wood, William D. Report of the Adjutant General. St. Louis: Headquarters State of Missouri Adjutant Generals Office, 1863, p. 483.

[5] Ibid., Serial 086, Page 0707, Chapter LIII.

[6] Ibid., Serial 083, Page 0375, Chapter LIII.

[7] New York Times. "Burial of Col. Albert Sigel." New York Times Obituary, March 21, 1884.

Guerrilla warfare and the Civil War in Missouri

Missouri "partisan" soldiers at Fort Davidson
in Pilot Knob 2007

Lets take a look at a topic that has been discussed in Missouri for over 150 years - the Civil War in Missouri, and in particular, guerrilla warfare.

The American Civil War is a period that evokes many perceptions. To most people, the first things that usually come to mind are slavery, Gettysburg, Robert E. Lee, Ulysses S. Grant, and the assassination of Abraham Lincoln. Most people think the war took place solely east of the Mississippi River and was fought mostly in the eastern portion of the United States.

The state of Missouri, however, saw more battles within its borders than any other US state and was only eclipsed by Virginia and Tennessee in total number of battles fought. And while there were major battles that took place in the state involving regular army units from both the Union and Confederate ranks, a large portion of the conflicts that took place were between the everyday citizens of the state.

These men were usually from rural areas and one could argue that they fought not for slavery (the vast majority of these men did not even own slaves) but over areas of land that had little to no governmental control. Some of these men, however, fought for more insidious reasons which included the murdering of innocent people.

These men, called bushwhackers (the term refers to their guerrilla-like tactics of hiding out in "bushy" areas and then ambushing their victims), were, in general, usually part of the irregular military units of both the Union and the Confederacy and since they were not part of the regular army, both governments struggled with how to deal with these bands of men; should they be treated as legitimate military operations or criminal actions.

Many of the bushwhackers in Missouri used a form of guerrilla warfare known as “People’s war” as their primary means of warfare as opposed to standard, military style operations. This usually included neighbor against neighbor fighting to settle grudges and disputes but on rare occasions would consist of these civilians banding together to fight against opposing troops.

The other type of guerrilla warfare used by the bushwhackers was "Partisan warfare". This type of guerrilla warfare differed in that it was comprised of small forces that were in turn controlled and/or organized by a larger military organization. This ultimately led to these groups of "partisan rangers" being perceived as having more "legitimacy" than their bushwhacker brethren.

Here are the stories of a few of these famous (or as some may say infamous) bushwhackers and partisan rangers of Missouri.

William Clarke QuantrillThe "kingpin" of all the guerrilla leaders in Missouri was undoubtedly William Clarke Quantrill. Quantrill led many raids and attacks on known Union towns and against Union soldiers as well as robbing stagecoaches. These actions led Union commanders to brand him an outlaw, even as he apparently secured a captains rank in the Confederate army in charge of partisan rangers.

Quantrill is probably best known for his raid and sacking of Lawrence, Kansas in 1863. Lawrence had strong ties to the Union and was the base for the abolitionists in Kansas. When a makeshift jail collapsed, killing four young women accused of supporting Quantrill's Raiders, Quantrill and his men blamed the collapse on the Union. With the fire fueled Quantrill ordered the attack on Lawrence, and by his orders, his guerrillas killed 183 men and boys "old enough to carry a rifle".

Quantrill met his end in Kentucky when he rode into a Union ambush on May 10, 1865. He was shot in the chest and died on June 6th.

William T. "Bloody Bill" AndersonOne of Quantrill's allies was another notorious guerrilla of note, William T. "Bloody Bill" Anderson. Two of William T. Anderson's sisters, Josephine and Mary were in the collapsed jail in Kansas City that fueled the fire for the attack on Lawrence. Josephine was killed and Mary was crippled. Anderson rode with Quantrill's Raiders until a dispute with Quantrill in Texas led Anderson to head his own band of partisans and they headed back to Missouri.

Anderson was known for his savagery and made a habit of not only shooting his prisoners, but also mutilating and scalping them. This was the case on September 27, 1864 during the Centralia Massacre where he killed, mutilated and decapitated almost 150 Union solders.

Anderson met his end when he led a charge against an ambush in Ray County, Missouri. Anderson fell from the saddle after having been shot twice in the head. His remains were taken to Richmond, Missouri where he was put on display, then decapitated, his head stuck on a pole and his body dragged through the streets before being buried in an unmarked grave.

Bill WilsonThe name Bill Wilson is probably one you have never heard of in reference to the Civil War, but his story is probably one of the most interesting and one that could be said is the story of Missourians in the Civil War. Bill Wilson lived in the foothills of the Ozarks in the Phelps county Missouri area. He maintained a neutral stance leading up to and during some of the war. This changed when his wife and children were pulled from their home by Union soldiers and then watched it burn to the ground. Wilson went on a killing spree and enacted his vengeance on anything and anyone even remotely having ties to the Union or with the attack on his family.

Wilson was notorious for being unrivaled when it came to shooting and was also very adept at ambush techniques. The foothills of the Ozarks, and the close family ties there afforded Wilson considerable security. As the war continued Wilson enacted his vengeance and was considered a criminal for his actions by Union commanders and ultimately fled to Texas.

At this point the story of Bill Wilson becomes cloudy, as no one is completely sure what happened to him. Some stories have him joining William Quantrill while he was in Texas. According to the book "Bushwhacker" by George Clinton Arthur, Wilson was shot to death in March 1869 by two Missourians, John Thompson and William O. Blackmore and supposedly covered with brush in a hasty burial.

Both men were tried and hung in Sherman, Texas. No grave or remains have been found to date of Bushwhacker Bill Wilson.

One would be remiss to leave out Jesse James, his brother Frank James and Cole Younger as three of the most recognizable and notorious bushwhackers or partisans in Missouri's history. We will discuss them in a future article. Their eventual notoriety would be a direct result of their respect, admiration and tutelage of their mentors, William Quantrill and Bloody Bill Anderson.

Price and McCulloch: The fueling of guerrilla warfare in Missouri

After the victory at Wilson's Creek in August of 1861, southern forces in Missouri under the command of Missouri Militia General Sterling Price and Confederate Brigadier General Benjamin McCulloch found a new sense of purpose in Missouri. Southern sympathizing Missourians found a renewed spirit and hope for their cause in Missouri. This lead to the Militia making it's way northward through Missouri and ended in the town of Lexington along the Missouri River.

"The Battle of the Hemp Bales" as it was also called was a temporary victory for Price and his Militia, however General McCulloch opted to not follow his southern sympathizing bretheren and held to the soutwestern portion of Missouri. By November, McCulloch had secured that portion of the state. In a dispatch to Confederate General Samuel Cooper, the rift between McCulloch and Price was ever apparent:

HEADQUARTERS DIVISION, Springfield, Mo.,
November 19, 1861.
General S. COOPER,
Adjt. and Isp. General, C. S. Army, Richmond, Va.:
GENERAL: I have the honor to report that on the night of the 15th instant I received information at my headquarters, 72 miles from here, that the Federal troops had started back toward Saint Louis from this place. On the 16th I started with all my available mounted troops, without wagons, and after a rapid march arrived near here last night. I was in hopes before arriving that I might be able to overtake some of the trains of the enemy, but on my arrival I found that they were too far to attempt even a pursuit, they being at least 100 miles ahead.  

From all the information I can obtain the enemy's strength was at least 30,000, with an abundance of artillery. There was evidently considerable disaffection in their ranks, and on leaving here Lane, with his Kansas troops, carried off 500 or 600 negroes, belonging to Union men as well as secessionists. From what I can learn they intend to fortify Rolla, Sedalia, and Jefferson City, and to garrison each of those places.

The Union men have nearly all fled with the Federal troops, leaving this place almost deserted. From all the information I can get of General Price's movements he seems to be making his way in the direction of the Missouri River. An attempt of the kind, in my opinion, can only terminate as did his previous expedition to that country. Considering it inexpedient to attempt a winter campaign in this country, I shall return to the borders of Arkansas, and put my command in winter quarters by the 15th of December. As there will be much to do to make the many arrangements necessary for an early spring campaign, I respectfully request the authority of the Department for me to visit Richmond for that purpose. As soon as the troops are in winter quarters my presence here could be dispensed with for a few weeks.

Hoping my views may meet the approval of the Department, I have the honor to be, very respectfully, your obedient servant,

BEN. McCULLOCH, Brigadier-General, Commanding.

McCulloch also wrote to CSA Secretery of War J. P. Benjamin on the same day with the following account:

HEADQUARTERS, Springfield, Mo.,
November 19, 1861.
Honorable J. P. BENJAMIN,
Secretary of War:

SIR: I shall return to Arkansas, put my troops in winter quarters soon, and ask permission to come immediately to Richmond, so as to give the administration correct information regarding affairs in this region before it acts on matters here.
The Federals left eighth days since with 30,000 men, quarreled among themselves, and greatly injured their cause by taking negroes belonging to Union men. General Lane went to Kansas, General Hunter to Sedalia, and General Sigel to Rolla.

I have the honor to be, with respect, your obedient servant,

BEN. McCULLOCH,
Brigadier-General, Commanding.

It's obvious that McCulloch did not agree with Price's actions and began preparations to move his command out of Missouri to be used elsewhere for the Confederacy. With the rift turning into rivalry, the overall command of the Trans-Mississippi district was turned over to Major General Earl Van Dorn. Price was commissioned a Major General in the Confederate Army and combined Price's militia and McCulloch's soldiers tow for the Army of the West and would engage Union General Samuel Curtis at the Battle of Pea Ridge in Arkansas.

With regular and most of the pro-southern militia pulled out of Missouri, the pro-southern cause was left in the hands of guerillas like William Clarke Quantrill, William "Bloody Bill" Anderson, George Todd, Dave Poole, Cole Younger, William Gregg and John McCorkle to defend the southern and Missouri cause.

Dispatches Source: OFFICIAL RECORDS: Series 1, vol 3, Part 1, Chapter X, pg 742-743

Air Power Prior to 1964 During the Vietnam Conflict

When discussing the impact of the air war in the early stages of the Vietnam Conflict, that is, prior to 1964, one has to look at the framework that the conflict was based on and the tactical initiatives that the military leaders were employing. In the early stages of the war the involvement of the United States was more of a defensive nature – providing support to the advisors and Vietnamese forces while not maintaining an offensive position. 

However, according to Air Force General Thomas D. White, “our philosophy is based on the fact that offence is the best defense” the Air Force’s position was in conflict with the position of the defensive nature of the United States commanders in Vietnam. Given this scenario, the Air Force commanders had little to no involvement in the debate over strategy in Vietnam and therefor focused on the global situation, namely in Berlin and Cuba, leaving air strategy out of the equation in the early portion of the Vietnam Conflict. Another factor was the newness of the Air Force as an air power in competition with the Army Air Corp. The Director of Plans for the US Air Force observed that in 1962, the US Army had 199 aircraft in Vietnam while the Air Force had only 61. 

That is a significant difference and shows the mindset of the use of air power in what the commanders believed to be a limited war, which negated the real use of the Air Force, as opposed to a general war, which would in turn require the large scale integration of the Air Force with the other military branches. Another major factor was that early on, even with the urging of top Vietnamese leaders to proceed with vigorous attacks, Air Force pilots did not engage in this activity due to the possibility of harm to Vietnamese civilians.

One of the biggest successes early in the conflict was the use of flare-and-strike missions. The Viet Cong had a habit of becoming active after dark and the commanders in Vietnam began experimenting with aerial flares that would be dropped from an SC-47 and would light up the sky and force the Viet Cong to call off their attack as their cover of darkness was now compromised. The success of these missions led Secretary Robert McNamara to order that villages be equipped with radios to facilitate calls for air support. 

On 2 January 1963 the entire VNAF-USAF was committed to Operation Burning Arrow at Bien Hoa, an hour long air strike against pinpoint enemy targets in the Tay Ninh area. The enemy was surprised and initial attack was followed by air drops and helicopters deploying paratroopers and rangers who seized the objective and revealed that a number of NLF leaders had been killed or wounded. Unfortunately for every Operation Burning Arrow there would be failures such as the loss at Ap Bac just hours later. This would be the nature of air warfare throughout the entire Vietnam conflict.

When discussing armaments, napalm resides at the top of the discussion list. The use of napalm would prove to be not only effective in destroying the landscape, foliage and structures that would conceal the enemy, it would produce toxic carbon monoxide that would kill most anything in its path. According to Kim Phuc, a napalm bombing survivor, "Water boils at 100 degrees Celsius. Napalm generates temperatures of 800 to 1,200 degrees Celsius ." Philip Jones Griffiths, in his book “Vietnam, Inc.” explains the evolution of napalm:

We sure are pleased with those backroom boys at Dow. The original product wasn’t so hot – if the gooks were quick they could scrape it off. So the boys started adding polystyrene – now it sticks like s**t to a blanket. But if the gooks jumped under water it stopped burning, so they started adding Willie Peter (white phosphorus) so’s to make it burn better. And just one drop is enough, it’ll keep burning right down to the bone so they die anyway from phosphorus poisoning.

Needless to say the effectiveness of this weapon was instrumental the psychological experience of the Viet Cong and the civilian population that harbored them. Akin to William T. Sherman’s use of total war during the American Civil War, napalm was effective in changing a course of action in the enemy with minimal danger to the force employing it.

The air war in Vietnam prior to 1964 can be categorized as being hindered by political as well as inter-military conflicts and lack of direction and planning on the part of the command structure. And while there were many great and heroic victories and actions early on in the Vietnam War, there were an equal number of failures. The use of weapons like napalm would not only change the psyche of the enemy, but also would scar the memory of many young men who went off to fight a war unlike any they or their forefathers had ever encountered and would change the way America looks at its military involvement in the world.

European Race to Colonize the World

There were many factors that led European countries to dominate the race to colonize the world. One of the major factors is that Europe became industrialized quicker than other portions of the world. This thought then leads to the idea that with industrialization came an increase in wealth which also led to an increase in abilities to travel further from their homelands. 

Also, the effective use of gunpowder allowed Europeans in small numbers to be able to influence and control a larger, less equipped people. Another major factor was that Europeans dominated the seas and as kingdoms grew and monarchs searched for wealth, the desire to travel the seas to find this wealth led to increased knowledge of the seas, shipbuilding, and navigation.

One of the major factors in colonization was to spread Christianity around the world. This was a European endeavor as the whole of Europe in the early modern period was still powered by the Holy Roman Church. By sending missionaries to foreign nations, the goal was not only to convert civilizations that Europeans believed to be godless heathens, but to also expand each nations control of trade, gain increased wealth by integration with the indigenous, and to increase in size, ergo, increasing their nations power over other nations.

Europe dominated the colonization game over countries such as China and India because of a different endgame view of colonization and, more importantly, immediate threats to their homeland. China for example had initially went out on voyages to obtains goods and make a show of China’s power, however, they tended to come back with less than what it cost to send such costly journeys. Of even more importance, China became more concerned about Mongol threats by land than that from any overseas invader. China also held a very high perception of their country, that their country was vastly superior and other nations insignificant, that outside of China, the world was nothing but savages.

The impact of colonialism by Europeans powers was clearly a two edged sword. The Europeans indeed brought methods of technology with them with the ability to create a better manner of life for people they believed were heathens. However, along with that came diseases that indigenous people could not fight off, cultural differences resulting at times into armed conflict, slavery, disintegration of a civilizations heritage, religious practices and culture, and the introduction of a class system placing the Europeans at the top and the natives at the bottom.

The impact of European colonization is also responsible for the rapid rise in western ideals and influence across the globe that still exist to this day. This influence and impact is clearly in the eye of the beholder and could be debated until the end of time. One side of the equation would have us believe that it was negative in its impact, causing the dissolve of peoples and cultures. Others would argue that it facilitated the growth of a world market, industrialization and advances in medicine, health and sanitation. Ultimately, the march of time favored the Europeans, who took advantage of the times and resources they were dealt.

Tales from the Graveyard

Most people probably think a guy wandering around a cemetery checking out graves with notebook in hand is a bit odd. What enjoyment or information can you possibly get from a bunch of dead people and the stones marking their final resting place?

Believe it or not, there is a lot to be learned, as well as enjoyment, from spending some time at a local cemetery. Sounds morbid, but it really isn't. I'll try to explain.

You can really get some good information from a simple headstone when you are attempting to research a particular person in your family, even if the stone isn't that person. Many times, the people buried around each other had some sort of relationship during their lives. This can help in determining if a person is indeed who you think they are.

Sometimes the stone will have extra information. They might have markings such as "husband of" or "wife of" with dates listed on them. You might find children's names and dates on them. This can be great information for piecing together research and verifying its accuracy.

In some cases you will have military service listed. This is another great piece of information for discovering the history of the person you are researching. It is also great for ensuring you have the correct person. Many will not only show their service, but what units they were with and their rank. Again, this is great information when you are putting the pieces together on an individual's life history.

In less common cases you might even get affiliations listed on the stone or on auxiliary markers next to the stone. They may have been members of the American Legion, the Grand Army of the Republic, the Odd Fellows, the I.B.E.W. or other organizations. This gives you great information about their community involvement and where they put their roots down at. You can then find records from these organizations and piece together the details of the person you are researching. This information can also serve to prove or disprove the accuracy of the information or even if the person is the person you are researching.

But aside for all that there are also stories that can come from a walk through a cemetery. You will see stones of unnamed infants, children who passed on too soon, and families all buried together. These, in my opinion, are the heartbreaking tales of our fragile lives. You will find memorials to fathers and mothers, some with long passages to commemorate them. You will see some that are designed with that person's passion - a golf fanatic, a hunter, a carpenter, a seamstress, etc. and you get a picture of what that person might have been life in life.

You will find mysteries and in the process of trying to solve that mystery you learn a little of that person's life. I once walked through a rural cemetery in Missouri and found a stone that showed a husband and wife, Edley and Elmiry Jewell, except that the husband's death date was not complete. It showed his birth date and then death of 19??. After a little more research I found out that the man's wife had died and she was buried there and when the stone was made he was added as well, assuming he would be buried there too. Turns out he packed the kids up, moved to California and died there, never returning to be buried next to his wife, leaving his date blank there in Missouri.

And finally there is enjoyment and satisfaction that can come from an outing at a cemetery. It is quiet, peaceful, serene and a good place to just shut out the business of today's society and find a place to just stop, gather your thoughts, enjoy the beauty of the outside world and just take a breather from every day stresses. One of the organizations I belong to make it a point to go and take care of the stones of Civil War soldiers and ensure they are cleaned and properly taken care of. This goes beyond respect for the dead. It is respect and gratitude for their service of our country and the sacrifice they made and to ensure their final resting places are maintained out of this respect.

The tales that cemeteries tell are endless, the history is timeless, and the emotions priceless. Learning about your family and passing that information along to your progeny is a wonderful way to remember and celebrate the lives of those who went before you. Learning about the lives of other people, either in the process of researching your own family or simply out of curiosity, is an excellent way to get in touch with your community and society as a whole.